Calotropis Procera (Asclepiadaceae)

Calotropis Procera:-

Introduction:- 
Arka is one of the herbs mentioned in all ancient scripts of Ayurveda. Dhanvantari Nighantu and Madanadi Nighantu have mentioned only two varieties of arka, namely : arka and alarka (rajarka). But Bhavaprakasa after describing two kinds of arka says that there is another variety called raktarka and describes its properties separately. The author of Raja Nighantu also enumerates three kinds of arka viz. arka, vetarka and rajarka and ascribes all of them separately.
However, only two varieties of arka are commonly met with, one with white flowers (Calotropis procera) and the other with lilac, rosy or purple tinted flowers (Calotropis gigantean). In Ayurvedic texts the white flowered varieties called alarka are said to be of superior quality, though all the commentators are of the opinion that either of these can be used with equal effect, as both have the same properties. Maharsi Caraka has categorized arka as bhedaniya- accumulation breaking herb, svedopaga – an adjunct to sweating therapy and vamanopaga – an adjunct to emesis (Caraka Samhita, Sutra, A-4). It is cited to be useful for external application, in ascites. (Astanga Sangraha, Cikitsa, 17).
Arka grows throughout India, especially in dry waste lands. It is a shrub reaching 3-5 metres in height, with thick twisted branches. The young branches are bluntly quadrangular and the bark is ash coloured, covered with a white woolly down. The leaves are large, opposite, spreading, decussate, whitish green in colour, 10-15 cm long and 3-7 cm broad. They resemble to those of banyan tree. The flowers are rather large, beautiful lilac or purple tinged, arranged in umbellate corymbs on erect cylindrical stout peduncles. The fruits are short, stout peduncles. The fruits are short, ovoid, curved, thick, fleshy follicles covered with white woolly pubescence.
As mentioned above, the white flowered variety is botanically named as Calotropis procera and the other with lilac, rosy or purple tinted flowers as Calotropis gigantean. They belong to family Asclepiadaceae. From the leaves of Calotropis procera, calotropin, calatoxin, uscharin and uscharidin have been isolated from latex. Calotropin shows digitalis like action on the heart, but its action is not cumulative and is less harmful. From the flowers, cyaniding – 3 rhamnoglucose and new triterpenecalotropenyl acetate is isolated. Lupeol is isolated from latex. Quercetin-3-rutinoside is identified in the roots, stem, leaves, flowers and latex. Voruscharin is isolated from African plant. Cardenolides contents in leaf (2.04 mg / g ) and in latex (162.0 mg/g) , mostly calotropagenin – derived cardenolides present from Calotropis gigantean, two triterpene esters – 3 methylbutanoates of amyrin and taraxasterol isolated from latex. Calotosin uscharin and calactin have been also identified
Properties :-
Arka is pungent and bitter in taste (rasa) pungent in the post digestive effect and has hot potency (virya). The white flowered variety alleviates kapha and vata dosa. Whereas red variety alleviates kapha and pitta dosas. It possesses light (laghu), dry and sharp attributes. The chief properties of arka are emetic, purgative, appetizer, digestant, irritant, poisonous and abortificient. It is used in ascites, tumours and dermatoses. (Bhavaprakasa Nighantu)
Medicinal Uses :-
The root skin, latex, flowers, leaves and the ksara of arka are used for medicinal purpose. Arka is useful both, internally as well as externally. The poultice of its leaves effectively reduces the pain and swelling in rheumatic joints and filariasis. The medicated oil is beneficial in otitis and deafness; The topical sprinkle of dried leaves powder hastens the wound healing. In glandular swellings the topical application of latex reduces the inflammation. In skin diseases, associated with depigmentation, the latex combined with mustard oil, works well. The fomentation with its leaves, slightly warmed with thin coat of castor oil, is beneficial to relieve the abdominal pain. The local application of latex is recommended in hairfall and baldness. It also, is useful in piles. The latex also mitigates the dental aches.
Internally, arka is very useful many diseases, especially in ascites. The latex as a strong purgative and accumulations breaking imparts excellent results in ascites of kapha type and hepatosplenomegaly with ascites. To alleviate the oedema in such conditions, of kapha origin, the decoction of its roots combined with triphala and honey, is salutary. In asthma and cough, the flowers and the root skin of arka are commonly used. As a blood purifier, it is benevolent is filariasis and syphilis, The red flowers alleviate raktapitta. In chronic dermatoses, the root skin is recommended with honey.
The large doses of its latex and leaf juice produces toxic symptoms like burning in throat, irriation of the stomach, nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, tremors, vertigo and convulsions. In these conditions, withdraw the use of arka or its preparations and advise the milk and ghee in diet.
Classical Ayurvedic Preparations

• Arkavaleha
• Arka taila
• Arkesvara
• Arkadi curna
• Ekangafira
• Sutikabha rana
• Mahavatavidhvamsa
• Pravala pancamrta
• Arkakolakanda vati etc.

Pharmacognostical studies on Calotropis procera (Ait.) R.Br.

Pharmacognostical studies on Calotropis procera (Ait.) R.Br.
Anita Kumari and Ashwani Kumar

Calotropis procera (Asclepiadaceae) is a wild shrub, which grows upto a height of 1-3 m and its leaves are 10-13 cm wide by 17-19 cm long. Calotropis procera commonly known as Akra is a popular medicinal plant. This plant is very drought resistant and grows throughout the Sahelian countries, notably in Burkina Faso.

Medicinal properties:

Its latex is used in leprosy, eczema, inflamation, cutaneous infections, syphilis, malarial and low hectic fevers, and as abortifacient ( Kumar and Basu, 1994). Leaves: in rheumatism, as an anti-inflmmatory and antimicrobial and Roots: as hepatoprotective agents, against colds and coughs, syphlis and elephantiasis, as an anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antimalarial and antimicrobial. Flowers: as cytostatic, arbortifacient and antimalarial, in asthama and piles and villagers in Bikaner district ingest almost all plant parts in various dietary combinations for malarial fevers and pyrexias (Sharma and Sharma, 2000).

Dried latex and chloroform extract of roots has been reported to possess anti-inflamatory activity ( Kumar and Basu, 1994). Aqueous extract of the flowers has been found to exhibit analgesic, antipyretic and anti-inflammatory activity. The alcoholic extract from different parts has been found to possess antimicrobial and spermicical activity (Kamath and Rana, 2002).

Anti-iflamatory property of the latex of Calotropis procera was studied on crrageenin and formalin induced rat raw oedema model. A single dose of the aqueous suspension of dried latex was effective to a significant level against acute inflammatory response ( Basu and Nag Chaudhri, 1991)

Anti-pest activity: mosquito control by Calotropis latex has been reported by Girdhar et al (1984), The effect of crude fractions of C. procera, ist flowers, buds and root were tested against a chloroquine sensitive strain, MRC 20 and a chloroquine resistant strain, MRC 76 of Plasmodium falciparum ( Sharma and Sharma, 1999).

Traditional uses:
 Anti-diarrhoel effects of C.gigantea used traditionally in Indian system of medicine were recorded. The remarkable anti-diarrhoel effect of C. gigantea extract against castor oil-induced diarrhoel model attests to ist utility in a wide range of diarrhoel states ( Chitme et al 2004).
 Enzymes:
 The plant contains several useful enzymes. A protease was purified to homogeneity from the latex of medicinal plant Calotropis procera. The enzyme hydrolyses denatured natural substances like casein, azoalbumin, and azocasein with high specific activity.
 Anti-microbial activity:
 It has been shown to have anti-bacterial properties against Gram positive bacteria and two gram negative bacteria.
 Global use in traditional medicinal system:
 The decoction of the aerial part of Calotropis procera is commonly used in Saudi Arabian traditional medicines for the treatment of variety of diseases including fever, joint pain, muscular spasm and constipation. The phytochemical studies showed the presence of alkaloids, cardiac glycosides, tannins, flavonoids, sterols and /or triterpenes. In parts of West Africa, including Nigeria and Republic of Benin, the juice from the leaves of the Sodom apple (C.procera) is used for traditional cheese-making ( Ogundiwin and Oke, 1983). Recently partially purified milk clotting enyzme has been extracted from Sodom apple leaves (Aworh and Nakai, 1986). Chemical composition and texture profile of cheese made with vegetable rennet from Calotropis procera (Sodom applie) leaves were compared with those of a direct acid cheese made with calf rennet. Relative to that made with calf rennet, cheese made with vegetable rennet was harder, less cohesive and more gummy, presumably because of differences in chemical composition and physical characteristics between the cheeses. (Aworh and Muller, 1987).

The Important And Useful Benefits Of Papaya

 

The papaya is an amazingly rich source of the proteolytic enzymes. These are the chemicals that enable the digestion of protein. Papain, which is the most important of these enzymes in the papaya, is extracted and dried as a powder for use to aid the digestion, and it is often used as a meat tenderizer, the enzyme partially breaking down the meat fibers - digesting them in fact.

Many experts, such as Dr Lytton-Bernard, have claimed rejuvenating properties for papaya, especially for the control of premature ageing. It may be that it works simply because a poor digestion leaves the body without the correct nutrients. Those who find it almost impossible to digest anything frequently find that papaya used regularly, either in tablet or juice form, marks the turning point in the climb back to vitality and good health.

As a cleanser you can take a quarter pint (150ml) of papaya juice alternated each hour for twelve hours by the same amount of cucumber or green bean juice. Papaya loses some of the enzymes as it ripens, so if you have the choice select them green. They are easy to obtain in most parts of America but are not found in British greengrocers very often. Fortunately there has been a rapid expansion in the numbers of specialist shops providing for the needs of the Indian and West Indian communities where papayas can be bought.

Papaya contains arginine which is known to be essential for male fertility and also carpain, an enzyme thought to be good for the heart. Fibrin also occurs and this substance is not commonly found in the plant kingdom; in man it forms part of the blood clotting process. The papaya is an excellent source of vitamin C, with 82mg per 100g (4oz), and is rich in carotene.

After treatment with antibiotics the use of papaya juice will quickly assist the restoration of the normal bacteria in the gut which will have been destroyed by the treatment. Papaya is good for many digestive disorders and is excellent for improving poor digestion. It has also been recommended as part of the treatment for cancer. Therapeutically it can often be combined with pineapple juice in which there is another important enzyme bromelain.

The skin of the papaya is a first class external treatment for skin wounds and places that do not heal quickly. The pulp from the juicer can be used for this and as a poultice.

Papaya As A Skin Care

Perk up your skin and eliminate the day’s worries with papaya. It’s beneficial for skin care and repair. You can use papaya to treat or eliminate old dead skin cells, dandruff and other skin disorders and even to reduce the signs of premature aging. The following recipes will show you how. 

Acne: Apply a mask using the fleshy side of a green papaya skin on the acne. A papaya diet supports the treatment internally. Apply a mask of pickled grated papaya in vinegar once a week. Dilute papaya vinegar with water in a one to 10 ratio and use it as a skin cleanser. Treat stubborn areas with undiluted papaya vinegar and papaya oil. 

Age spots: Place the fleshy side of the skin from a mature green papaya onto the age spots until the spots fade. 

Dandruff: Shampoo hair with diluted papaya vinegar mixed with lemon juice and leave on for 20 minutes. Rinse the hair with diluted papaya vinegar. Papaya hair shampoos are also available in health food stores. 

Skin with enlarged pores: Washings or compresses with diluted papaya vinegar. 

Skin, rough: Native Americans rub rough skin with the fleshy side of the skin from a ripe papaya. 

Skin, unclear: For deep skin cleansing, apply a papaya mask followed by an application of papaya vinegar weekly, diluted with water in a one to 10 ratio. 

Skin, hard: Repeatedly apply squeezed leaves or the fleshy side of the skin from a green fruit. For hard skin on the foot, use papaya vinegar in foot baths. 

Sunspots: Apply the fleshy side of the skin from a green fruit to the spots. Also apply papaya vinegar to the spots. 

Wrinkles: Old skin cells make wrinkles deeper. Use a papaya powder (sold in health food stores as "Paw-Paw Condiment") face mask to reduce old dead skin cells and to make the skin smoother. Apply the fleshy side of the skin from a green papaya. 

In rare cases and with long-term application, highly concentrated papaya could cause sensitivity and skin irritation.
Papaya Vinegar
Cut the fruit (with the skin) into thin slices. Fill two-thirds of a glass jar with the papaya. Pour in apple cider vinegar until the papaya is well covered. Let mature for four weeks. Strain out the papaya and the vinegar is ready to use. 

Papaya Oil
Cut the skin or leaves of a papaya into small pieces and place them into a pot (do not use an aluminum pot). Add enough extra-virgin olive oil to cover all the pieces. Simmer the oil for five minutes, then store the oil and plant parts in a cool place. After two days, extract the oil by squeezing the plant parts in a towel. 

Skin Cleanser
3 Tbsp (45 mL) pure honey 
1/2 tsp (2 mL) extra-virgin olive oil 
1/2 tsp (2 mL) wheat germ oil 
1 tsp (5 mL) papaya juice 

Mix the ingredients together. Wash the skin with warm water. Gently massage the cleanser onto moist skin, then rinse well with water. Apply twice daily. 

Skin Toner
2 tsp (10 mL) papaya vinegar 
1/4 cup (60 mL) rose water 
4 tsp (20 mL) lavender water 

Mix the ingredients together. Use twice daily. 

Moisturizing Oil
2 Tbsp (30 mL) papaya oil 
4 tsp (20 mL) calendula oil 
1 tsp (5 mL) almond oil 
1 tsp (5 mL) rosehip oil 

Mix the ingredients together. Gently massage into the skin twice daily. 

Papaya Fruit Mask
1 tsp (5 mL) pure honey 
1 egg 
1 tsp (5 mL) cream 
1 tsp (5 mL) papaya oil 

Mix the ingredients together and apply to well-cleansed skin. Leave the mask on for 10 to 15 minutes. Thoroughly rinse the skin with warm water, apply papaya skin toner and then papaya moisturizing oil. 

Bathing With Papaya
For these recipes, mix all the ingredients together. Add the oils to the bath water after filling the tub to prevent the essential oils from evaporating. 

Relaxing Bath
1/2 (125 mL) papaya vinegar 
1 tsp (5 mL) papaya oil 
3 drops lavender essential oil 
2 drops cedarwood essential oil 

This is a good anti-stress bath and it nourishes the skin at the same time. 

Pain-Relieving Bath
1/2 cup (125 mL) papaya vinegar 
1 tsp (5 mL) papaya oil 
3 drops lavender essential oil 
2 drops rosemary essential oil 

This bath is also excellent for muscle relaxation. 

Refreshing Bath
1/2 cup (125 mL) papaya vinegar 
1 tsp (5 mL) papaya oil 
3 drops lavender essential oil 
2 drops orange essential oil


Papaya Health Benefits and Papaya in Medicine, cancer 

and other

Just recently I came across an eye opening book by Barry Thomson “Join Our Escape From Death Row-Cancer Jail”, where he in a most genuine and generous ways shares valuable information and his knowledge in effective fight against cancer and ill health. Among other very interesting information I red about simple but wonderful papaya and its healing properties. One chapter in this book awoke in me more desire to learn and research as much as I possibly could as on a professional level I deal with people suffering many different health issues and aliments who look for alternative ways to help them. I would love to share what I know as I believe it can make difference in everyday life of many others. I am also hoping that this will prompt other people to share their knowledge about improving our general well being and health.

Papaya, Paw Paw, Tree Melon (botanical name Carica Papaya), it has oblong shape, normally greenish yellow, yellow or orange color. It is a large tree plant fruit usually reaching 2.5kg. It has bitter sweet taste and comes from tropical places with higher humidity, native to Mexico, countries of Central America, Thailand, Africa and Asia and growing well in Australia.

Papaya Health Benefits

Paw Paw how we call it here in Australia is these days plentiful all year round in most of the countries. The parts that are used medicinally are fruit, seeds, stems and leaves. I did look around and found out you can buy paw paw in all forms, in a form of fermented papaya, herbal teas even tablets and of course plenty of the fresh fruit, which can be eaten as it is or in a form of juice. So you ask what are these awesome healing properties of paw paw? Well where do I start? Papaya fruit is and excellent source of dietary fiber, folate, vitamin A, C and E. It also contains small amount of calcium, iron, riboflavin, thiamine and niacine. It is also very rich in antioxidant nutrients flavonoids and carotenes, very high in vitamin C plus A, and low in calories and sodium.

PawPaw tree. Paw paw is rich in enzymes called papain and chymopapain which helps with the digestion, particularly it breaks down the proteins from the food we eat into amino acids. The latest research shows that amino acids are responsible for all what is happening in our organism, basically for what is happening in every chemical reaction as well as our mental and physical health. As we age we produce less of the digestive enzymes in our stomach and pancreas, which leads to ineffective digestion of proteins. Due to this we end up with excess amount of undigested protein, which leads to overgrowth of the bad bacteria in our gastrointestinal system and not enough of amino acids to perform all important chemical reactions. We can say that good quality protein is absolutely essential for our healthy being. This is where the papaya enzymes can be very beneficial.

The papain enzymes are produced in the skinny peel of paw paw. The combination of these enzymes repels insect during the ripening, without this protection paw paw fruit would not survive. Eating paw paw after a meal makes for better digestion, prevents bloating and chronic indigestion. It can also lower the inflammation in the body, alleviates the pain and edema caused by sport injuries. Because of its anti-inflammatory properties papaya can relieve the severity of Rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis. Because of its high antioxidant content, papaya can prevent cholesterol oxidation and can be use in a preventative treatments against atherosclerosis, strokes, heart attacks and diabetic heart disease.

In a everyday health papaya works magic on strengthening the immune system preventing the recurrent colds and flu. After treatment with antibiotics eating paw paw or drinking its juice replenishes the good intestinal bacteria, which was destroyed by the antibiotic treatment. The latest good news from eating paw paw comes down once again to papain the enzyme which I talked about, it was found to destroy intestinal parasites. Papain is proteolitic enzyme, which means that it digests inert (non-living) proteins. Intestinal parasites are largely protein, the papain attacks it and causes parasite to die. Also, home applications of leaf and bark papaya extract is used to deal with mouth gums and toothaches which is being effectively practised in many cultures around the world.

Papaya Research and Products

Papain is also being studied for relief of cancer therapy side effects, especially relieving side effects such as difficulty swallowing and mouth sores after radiation and chemotherapy as well as boosting up the immune system and helping body to fight the cancer. I am big fan of the products made by Rochway, Australian company (for more information visit rochway.com.au) as they use organically grown papaya, producing among other products, product called Papaya35, fermented papaya enzymes. They also produce Blueberry and PawPaw probiotic Punch, which has very strong antioxidant properties that protects against free radicals. Free radicals contribute largely in many diseases such as diabetes, Parkinson’s, Alzheimer’s and cancer. Rochway products are 99% sugar free which makes them suitable for people suffering diabetes as well. As you can see there is plenty we can benefit from this simple fruit, more and more research is being done and I can’t wait to hear more about it.

For references and more on the current studies you can look up www.pubmed.gov as for the products there are few available on the market.I am sure if you look around you will be able to find many available or simply stick with the fresh fruit. However if you are looking or hoping for more therapeutic effect of eating papaya, you need to be aware the unripened papaya (still green papaya) contains far more of the proteolytic enzymes papain and chymopapain than ripened papaya which we commonly eat. You can also juice the leaves and stems but be prepared for the vile taste of it …. you can’t naturally like its taste nor does the cancer cells.

Summary of Healing Properties of Papaya

• Increases quality of proteins in whole organism.
• Revitalize the human body and maintain energy and vitality.
• Encourages the renewal of muscle tissue.
• Supports cardiovascular system.
• Boosts up the immune system.
• Helps with the digestive system, by breaking down the proteins and supporting production of digestive enzymes.
• Papaya can be use also externally as a treatment for skin wounds that don’t heal quickly, for this you can use papaya peel or ointments made out of papaya.
• Prevents the cataract formation.
• Due to high vitamin A, it lowers the risk of emphysema in smokers and passive smokers.
• Alleviates inflammation.
• Helps with the nausea and constipation.
• Can benefit people suffering colon cancer and other forms of cancers and aliments of cardiovascular and gastrointestinal systems.

Mango and Their Uses

Mango (from the Dravidian-Malayalam word മാങ്ങ (māṅṅa) manga) is a fruit which is indigenous to the Indian subcontinent, belonging to the genusMangifera, consisting of numerous species of tropical fruiting trees in the flowering plant family Anacardiaceae. While other Mangifera species (e.g. Horse Mango, M. foetida) are also grown on a more localized basis, Mangifera indica – the Common Mango or Indian Mango – is the only mango tree commonly cultivated in many tropical and subtropical regions, and its fruit is distributed essentially world-wide.

In several cultures, its fruit and leaves are ritually used as floral decorations at weddings, public celebrations and religious ceremonies.

Etymology :-

The English word mango probably originated from the Malayalam word "maanga" (മാങ്ങ (māṅṅa)), then via Portuguese as manga .The word's first recorded attestation in a European language was a text by Ludovico di Varthema in Italian in 1510, as Manga; the first recorded occurrences in languages such as French and post-classical Latin appear to be translations from this Italian text. The origin of the -o ending in English is unclear.

When mangoes were first imported to the American colonies in the 17th century, they had to be pickled due to lack of refrigeration. Other fruits were also pickled and came to be called "mangoes" (especially bell peppers), and by the 18th century, the word "mango" became a verb meaning to pickle".

Description :-

Mango trees (Mangifera indica L.) grow 35–40 m (115–130 ft) tall, with a crown radius of 10 m (33 ft). The mango tree is long-lived, as some specimens still fruit after 300 years.In deep soil the taproot descends to a depth of 6 m (20 ft) and the profuse, wide-spreading feeder roots also send down many anchor roots, which penetrate several feet of soil. The leaves are evergreen, alternate, simple, 15–35 cm (5.9–14 in) long and 6–16 cm (2.4–6.3 in) broad; when the leaves are young they are orange-pink, rapidly changing to a dark glossy red, then dark green as they mature. The flowers are produced in terminal panicles 10–40 cm (3.9–16 in) long; each flower is small and white with five petals 5–10 mm (0.20–0.39 in) long, with a mild sweet odor suggestive of lily of the valley. The fruit takes three to six months to ripen.

The ripe fruit is variable in size and color. Cultivars are variously yellow, orange, red or green and carry a single flat, oblong pit that can be fibrous or hairy on the surface and which does not separate easily from the pulp. Ripe, unpeeled fruit gives off a distinctive resinous, sweet smell. Inside the pit 1–2 mm (0.039–0.079 in) thick is a thin lining covering a single seed, 4–7 mm (0.16–0.28 in) long. The seed contains the plant embryo.

Cultivation and uses

Mangoes have been cultivated in the Indian subcontinent for thousands of years^] and reached East Asia between the 5th–4th century BC. By the 10th century AD, cultivation had begun in East Africa.^] The 14th century Moroccan traveler, Ibn Battuta, reported it at Mogadishu. Cultivation came later to Brazil, West Indiesand Mexico, where an appropriate climate allows its growth.

Mango is now cultivated in most frost-free tropical and warmer subtropical climates; nearly half of the world's mangoes are cultivated in India alone. Mango is also being grown in Andalusia, Spain (mainly in Málaga province), which is one of the few places in mainland Europe that allow growth of tropical plants and fruit trees. Many of the 1,000 + mango cultivars are easily cultivated using grafted saplings, ranging from the "turpentine mango" (named for its strong taste of turpentine, which according to the Oxford Companion to Food some varieties actually contain) to the huevos de toro ("eggs of the bull", a euphemism for "bull's testicles", referring to the shape and size).

Other cultivators include North, South and Central America, the Caribbean, south, west and central Africa, Australia, China, Pakistan, Bangladesh, andSoutheast Asia. Though India is the largest producer of mangoes, it accounts for less than one percent of the international mango trade, consuming most of its own output.

Dwarf or semi-dwarf varieties serve as ornamental plants and can be grown in containers.

A wide variety of diseases can afflict mangoes; see List of mango diseases.

Potential for contact dermatitis

Mango peel contains urushiol, the chemical in poison ivy and poison sumac that can cause urushiol-induced contact dermatitis in susceptible people.Cross-reactions between mango contact allergens and urushiol have been observed.  Those with a history of poison ivy or poison oak contact dermatitis may be most at risk for such an allergic reaction. Urushiol is also present in mango leaves and stems. During mango's primary ripening season, it is the most common source of plant dermatitis in Hawaii

[edit]Food

An unripe mango of Ratnagiri (India)

Mango is generally sweet, although the taste and texture of the flesh varies across cultivars, some having a soft, pulpy texture similar to an over-ripe plum, while the flesh of others is firmer, like a cantaloupe or avocado, or may have a fibrous texture. For consumption of unripe, pickled or cooked fruit, the mango skin may be consumed comfortably, but has potential to cause contact dermatitis (above) of the lips, gingiva or tongue in susceptible people. In ripe fruits which are commonly eaten fresh, the skin may be thicker and bitter tasting, so is typically not eaten.

Cuisine

Commercially packaged mango powder sold in clear plastic wrapping

Mangoes are widely used in cuisine. Sour, unripe mangoes are used in chutneys, athanu, pickles, side dishes, or may be eaten raw with salt, chili, or soysauce. A cooling summer drink called panna or panha comes from mangoes.

Ripe mangoes are typically eaten fresh; however, they can have many other culinary uses. Mango Lassi, a popular drink made throughout South Asia, is created by mixing ripe mangoes or mango pulp with yogurt and sugar. Ripe mangoes are also used to make curries. Aamras is a popular pulp/thick juice made of mangoes with sugar or milk and is consumed along with bread.

Mangoes are used in preserves like moramba, amchur (dried and powdered unripe mango) and pickles, including a spicy mustard-oil pickle. Ripe mangoes are often cut into thin layers, desiccated, folded, and then cut. These bars are similar to dried guava fruit bars available in some countries. The fruit is also added to cereal products like muesli and oat granola.

Native green mangoes from the Philippines

A basket of ripe mangoes fromBangladesh

Unripe mango may be eaten with bagoong (especially in the Philippines), fish sauce or with dash of salt. Dried strips of sweet, ripe mango (sometimes combined with seedless tamarind to form Mangorind) are also popular. Mangoes may be used to make juices, mango nectar, and as a flavoring and major ingredient in ice cream and sorbetes.

Mango is used to make juices, smoothies, ice cream, fruit bars, raspados, aguas frescas, pies and sweet chili sauce, or mixed with chamoy, a sweet and spicy chili paste. It is popular on a stick dipped in hot chili powder and salt or also as a main ingredient in fresh fruit combinations. In Central America, mango is either eaten green mixed with salt, vinegar, black pepper and hot sauce, or ripe in various forms. Toasted and ground pumpkin seed (called pepita) with lime and salt are the norm when eating green mangoes. Some people also add soy sauce or chili sauce.

Pieces of mango can be mashed and used as a topping on ice cream or blended with milk and ice as milkshakes. Sweet glutinous rice is flavored with coconut then served with sliced mango as a dessert. In other parts of Southeast Asia, mangoes are pickled with fish sauce and rice vinegar. Green mangoes can be used in mango salad with fish sauce and dried shrimp. Mango may be used as a topping to shaved ice along with condensed milk.

Nutrients and phytochemicals

di

Mango, raw

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy	272 kJ (65 kcal)
Carbohydrates	17.00 g
Sugars	14.8 g
Dietary fiber	1.8 g
Fat	0.27 g
Protein	0.51 g
Vitamin A equiv.	38 μg (4%)
- beta-carotene	445 μg (4%)
Thiamine (Vit. B1)	0.058 mg (4%)
Riboflavin (Vit. B2)	0.057 mg (4%)
Niacin (Vit. B3)	0.584 mg (4%)
Pantothenic acid (B5)	0.160 mg (3%)
Vitamin B6	0.134 mg (10%)
Folate (Vit. B9)	14 μg (4%)
Vitamin C	27.7 mg (46%)
Calcium	10 mg (1%)
Iron	0.13 mg (1%)
Magnesium	9 mg (2%)
Phosphorus	11 mg (2%)
Potassium	156 mg (3%)
Zinc	0.04 mg (0%)
Percentages are relative to US recommendationsfor adults. Source: USDA Nutrient database

Mango is rich in a variety of phytochemicals and nutrients. The fruit pulp is high in prebiotic dietary fiber, vitamin C, polyphenols and provitamin Acarotenoids.

Mango contains essential vitamins and dietary minerals. The antioxidant vitamins A, C and E compose 25%, 76% and 9% of the Dietary Reference Intake(DRI) in a 165 grams (5.8 oz) serving. Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine, 11% DRI), vitamin K (9% DRI), other B vitamins and essential nutrients such as potassium,copper and 17 amino acids are at good levels. Mango peel and pulp contain other phytonutrients, such as the pigment antioxidants – carotenoids and polyphenols – and omega-3 and -6 polyunsaturated fatty acids.

Mango peel contains pigments that may have antioxidant properties,including carotenoids, such as the provitamin A compound, beta-carotene, luteinand alpha-carotene,polyphenols such as quercetin, kaempferol, gallic acid, caffeic acid, catechins, tannins, and the unique mango xanthone,mangiferin, any of which may counteract free radicals in various disease processes as revealed in preliminary research Phytochemical and nutrient content appears to vary across mango species. Up to 25 different carotenoids have been isolated from mango pulp, the densest of which was beta-carotene, which accounts for the yellow-orange pigmentation of most mango species Peel and leaves also have significant polyphenol content, includingxanthones, mangiferin and gallic acid

The mango triterpene, lupeols an effective inhibitor in laboratory models of prostate and skin cancers. An extract of mango branch bark calledVimang, isolated by Cuban scientists, contains numerous polyphenols with antioxidant properties in vitro and on blood parameters of elderly humans.

The pigment euxanthin, known as Indian yellow, is often thought to be produced from the urine of cattle fed mango leaves; the practice is described as having been outlawed in 1908 due to malnutrition of the cows and possible urushiol poisoning.This supposed origin of euxanthin appears to rely on a single, anecdotal source, and Indian legal records do not outlaw such a practice.